Electrochemical Device For Converting Carbon Dioxide To A Reaction Product

ABSTRACT

An electrochemical device converts carbon dioxide to a reaction product. The device includes an anode and a cathode, each comprising a quantity of catalyst. The anode and cathode each has reactant introduced thereto. A polymer electrolyte membrane is interposed between the anode and the cathode. At least a portion of the cathode catalyst is directly exposed to gaseous carbon dioxide during electrolysis. The average current density at the membrane is at least 20 mA/cm 2 , measured as the area of the cathode gas diffusion layer that is covered by catalyst, and CO selectivity is at least 50% at a cell potential of 3.0 V. In some embodiments, the polymer electrolyte membrane comprises a polymer in which a constituent monomer is (p-vinylbenzyl)-R, where R is selected from the group consisting of imidazoliums, pyridiniums and phosphoniums. In some embodiments, the polymer electrolyte membrane is a Helper Membrane comprising a polymer containing an imidazolium ligand, a pyridinium ligand, or a phosphonium ligand.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation-in-part of InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2015/14328, filed Feb. 3, 2015, entitled“Electrolyzer and Membranes”. The '328 international application claimspriority benefits, in turn, from U.S. provisional patent applicationSer. No. 62/066,823 filed Oct. 21, 2014.

The present application is also a continuation-in-part of InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2015/26507, filed Apr. 17, 2015, entitled“Electrolyzer and Membranes”. The '507 international application alsoclaims priority benefits, in turn, from U.S. provisional patentapplication Ser. No. 62/066,823 filed Oct. 21, 2014.

The present application is also related to and claims priority benefitsfrom U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/066,823 filed Oct.21, 2014.

The '823 provisional application and the '328 and '507 internationalapplications are each hereby incorporated by reference herein in theirentirety

This application is also related to U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/035,935, filed Sep. 24, 2013, entitled “Devices and Processes forCarbon Dioxide Conversion into Useful Fuels and Chemicals”; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/830,338, filed Jul. 4, 2010, entitled “NovelCatalyst Mixtures”; International Application No. PCT/2011/030098 filedMar. 25, 2011, entitled “Novel Catalyst Mixtures”; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/174,365, filed Jun. 30, 2011, entitled “NovelCatalyst Mixtures”; International Patent Application No.PCT/US2011/042809, filed Jul. 1, 2011, entitled “Novel CatalystMixtures”; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/530,058, filed Jun. 21,2012, entitled “Sensors for Carbon Dioxide and Other End Uses”;International Patent Application No. PCT/US2012/043651, filed Jun. 22,2012, entitled “Low Cost Carbon Dioxide Sensors”; and U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/445,887, filed Apr. 12, 2012, entitled“Electrocatalysts for Carbon Dioxide Conversion.”

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made, at least in part, with U.S. government supportunder ARPA-E Contract No. DE-AR-0000345 and the Department of Energyunder Contract No. DE-SC0004453. The government has certain rights inthe invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The field of the invention is electrochemistry. The devices and systemsdescribed involve the electrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide intouseful products, the electrolysis of water, electric power generationusing fuel cells and electrochemical water purification.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There is a desire to decrease carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions fromindustrial facilities and power plants as a way of reducing globalwarming and protecting the environment. One solution, known as carbonsequestration, involves the capture and storage of CO₂. Often the CO₂ issimply buried. It would be beneficial if instead of simply burying orstoring the CO₂, it could be converted into another product and put to abeneficial use.

Over the years, a number of electrochemical processes have beensuggested for the conversion of CO₂ into useful products. Some of theseprocesses and their related catalysts are discussed in U.S. Pat. Nos.3,959,094; 4,240,882; 4,349,464; 4,523,981; 4,545,872; 4,595,465;4,608,132; 4,608,133; 4,609,440; 4,609,441; 4,609,451; 4,620,906;4,668,349; 4,673,473; 4,711,708; 4,756,807; 4,818,353; 5,064,733;5,284,563; 5,382,332; 5,457,079; 5,709,789; 5,928,806; 5,952,540;6,024,855; 6,660,680; 6,664,207; 6,987,134; 7,157,404; 7,378,561;7,479,570; U.S. Patent App. Pub. No. 2008/0223727; Hori, Y.,“Electrochemical CO2 reduction on metal electrodes”, Modern Aspects ofElectrochemistry 42 (2008), pages 89-189; Gattrell, M. et al. “A reviewof the aqueous electrochemical reduction of CO2 to hydrocarbons atcopper”, Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 594 (2006), pages 1-19;and DuBois, D., Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry, 7a, Springer (2006),pages 202-225.

Processes utilizing electrochemical cells for chemical conversions havebeen known for years. Generally an electrochemical cell contains ananode, a cathode and an electrolyte. Catalysts can be placed on theanode, the cathode, and/or in the electrolyte to promote the desiredchemical reactions. During operation, reactants or a solution containingreactants are fed into the cell. Voltage is then applied between theanode and the cathode, to promote the desired electrochemical reaction.

When an electrochemical cell is used as a CO₂ conversion system, areactant comprising CO₂, carbonate or bicarbonate is fed into the cell.A voltage is applied to the cell, and the CO₂ reacts to form newchemical compounds.

Several different cell designs have been used for CO₂ conversion. Mostof the early work used liquid electrolytes between the anode and cathodewhile later scientific papers discussed using solid electrolytes.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,523,981; 4,545,872; and 4,620,906 disclose the use of asolid polymer electrolyte membrane, typically a cation exchangemembrane, wherein the anode and cathode are separated by the cationexchange membrane. More recent examples of this technique include U.S.Pat. Nos. 7,704,369; 8,277,631; 8,313,634; 8,313,800; 8,357,270;8,414,758; 8,500,987; 8,524,066; 8,562,811; 8,568,581; 8,592,633;8,658,016; 8,663,447; 8,721,866; and 8,696,883. In these patents, aliquid electrolyte is used in contact with a cathode.

Prakash, G., et al. “Electrochemical reduction of CO₂ over Sn-Nafioncoated electrode for a fuel-cell-like device”, Journal of Power Sources223 (2013), pages 68-73 (“PRAKASH”), discusses the advantages of using aliquid free cathode in a cation exchange membrane style CO₂ electrolyzeralthough it fails to teach a liquid free cathode. Instead, a liquidsolution is fed into the cathode in the experiments discussed inPRAKASH.

In a liquid free cathode electrolyzer no bulk liquids are in directcontact with the cathode during electrolysis, however there can be athin liquid film on or in the cathode. In addition the occasional washor rehydration of the cathode with liquids may occur. Advantages ofusing a liquid free cathode included better CO₂ mass transfer andreduced parasitic resistance.

Dewolf, D., et al. “The electrochemical reduction of CO₂ to CH₄ and C₂H₄at Cu/Nafion electrodes (solid polymer electrolyte structures)”Catalysis Letters 1 (1988), pages 73-80 (“DEWOLF”), discloses the use ofa liquid free cathode in a cation exchange membrane electrolyzer: anelectrolyzer with a cation-conducting polymer electrolyte membraneseparating the anode from the cathode. DEWOLF reports an observedmaximum faradaic efficiency (the fraction of the electrons applied tothe cell that participate in reactions producing carbon containingproducts) of 19% for CO₂ conversion into useful products and a smallsteady state current of 1 mA/cm².

Various attempts have been made to develop a dry cell to be used in aCO₂ conversion system, as indicated in Table 1 below. However, a systemin which the faradaic efficiency in a constant voltage experiment isgreater than 32% has not been achieved. Furthermore, the reported ratesof CO₂ conversion current (calculated as the product of the faradaicefficiency for CO₂ conversion and the current in the cell after 30minutes of operation) have been less than 5 mA/cm²: too small forpractical uses.

There are a few reports that claim higher conversion efficiencies. Inparticular, Shironita, S., et al., “Feasibility investigation ofmethanol generation by CO2 reduction using Pt/C-based membrane electrodeassembly for a reversible fuel cell”, J. Power Sources 228 (2013), pages68-74 (“SHIRONITA I”), and Shironita, S., et al., “Methanol generationby CO2 reduction at a Pt-Ru/C electrocatalyst using a membrane electrodeassembly”, J. Power Sources 240 (2013), pages 404-410 (“SHIRONITA II”),reported “coulombic efficiencies” up to 70%. However columbic efficiencyis different from faradaic efficiency. A system can have a highcoulombic efficiency for the production of species adsorbed on theelectrocatalyst, but may only observe a small faradaic efficiency (0.03%in SHIRONITA I and SHIRONITA II) for products that leave the catalystlayer. This phenomena is adequately explained in Rosen, B. A., et al.,“In Situ Spectroscopic Examination of a Low Overpotential Pathway forCarbon Dioxide Conversion to Carbon Monoxide”, J. Phys. Chem. C, 116(2012), pages 15307-15312, which found that when CO₂ is reduced toadsorbed CO during CO₂ conversion by cyclic voltammetry, most of the COdoes not leave the electrolyzer.

Recently, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US2012/0171583 (the'583 publication) disclosed a cation exchange membrane design that couldbe run with a liquid free cathode. The application states that a “systemmay provide selectivity of methanol as part of the organic productmixture, with a 30% to 95% faradaic yield for carbon dioxide tomethanol, with the remainder evolving hydrogen.” However, theapplication does not provide data demonstrating a 30% to 95% faradaicyield. Furthermore, in trying to repeat the experiment, a steady statefaradaic efficiency near zero during room temperature electrolysis wasobserved. These results are further laid out in Comparison Example 1below.

In conclusion, faradaic efficiencies of less than 30% are not practical.What is needed is a process that has a faradaic efficiency of at least50%, preferably over 80%. Furthermore, a device with a low CO₂conversion current is impractical. What is needed is a device with a CO₂conversion current of at least 25 mA/cm².

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The low faradaic efficiencies and conversion currents seen in currentCO₂ electrolyzers with liquid free cathodes can be overcome by an anionexchange membrane electrolyzer with an anode and cathode separated by aHelper Membrane. Helper Membranes can increase the faradaic efficiencyof the cell. They can also allow product formation at lower voltagesthan without the Helper Membrane. The membranes used herein arenon-liquid, normally solid or porous sheet materials that are themselvesion-conducting.

Helper Membranes are related to the Helper Catalysts described inearlier U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 12/830,338 and 13/174,365,International Patent Application No. PCT/US2011/042809, and U.S. Pat.No. 8,956,990. Helper Membranes like the disclosed Helper Catalystsincrease the faradaic efficiency and allow significant currents to beproduced at lower voltages.

In at least some embodiments the Helper Membrane can include animidazolium, pyridinium, or phosphonium ligand.

A membrane can be classified as a Helper Membrane if it meets thefollowing test:

-   -   (1) A cathode is prepared as follows:        -   (a) A silver ink is made by mixing 30 mg of silver            nanoparticles (20-40 nm, stock #45509, Alfa Aesar, Ward            Hill, Mass.) with 0.1 ml deionized water (18.2 Mohm, EMD            Millipore, Billerica, Mass.) and 0.2 ml isopropanol (stock            #3032-16, Macron Fine Chemicals, Avantor Performance            Materials, Center Valley, Pa.). The mixture is then            sonicated for 1 minute.        -   (b) The silver nanoparticle ink is hand painted onto a gas            diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion Power Inc., New            Castle, Del.) covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm.    -   (2) An anode is prepared as follows:        -   (a) RuO₂ ink is made by mixing 15 mg of RuO₂ (stock #11804,            Alfa Aesar) with 0.2 ml deionized water (18.2 Mohm            Millipore), 0.2 ml isopropanol (stock #3032-16, Macron) and            0.1 ml of 5% Nafion solution (1100EW, DuPont, Wilmington,            Del.).        -   (b) The RuO₂ ink is hand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer            (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion Power) covering an area of 2.5            cm×2.5 cm.    -   (3) A 50-300 micrometer thick membrane of a “test” material is        made by conventional means such as casting or extrusion.    -   (4) The membrane is sandwiched between the anode and the cathode        with the silver and ruthenium oxide catalysts facing the        membrane.    -   (5) The membrane electrode assembly is mounted in Fuel Cell

Technologies (Albuquerque, N. Mex.) 5 cm² fuel cell hardware assemblywith serpentine flow fields.

-   -   (6) CO₂ humidified at 50° C. is fed into the cathode at a rate        of 5 sccm with the cell at room temperature and pressure, the        anode side is left open to the atmosphere at room temperature        and pressure, 3.0 V is applied to the cell, and the cathode        output composition is analyzed after the cell has been running        for 30 minutes at room temperature.    -   (7) Selectivity is calculated as follows:

${Selectivity} = \frac{\left( {{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} \right)}{\left( {{{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} + {H_{2}\mspace{11mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}}} \right)}$

-   -    where the CO and H₂ production rates are measured in standard        cubic centimeters per minute (sccm) leaving the electrolyzer.

If Selectivity is greater than 50%, and the CO₂ conversion current at3.0 V is 20 mA/cm² or more, where the cm² is measured as the area of thecathode gas diffusion layer that is covered by catalyst particles, themembrane containing the material is a Helper Membrane, for which:

(CO₂ conversion current)=(Total cell current)*(Selectivity)

An electrochemical device converts CO₂ to a reaction product. The devicecomprises:

-   -   (a) an anode comprising a quantity of anode catalyst, said anode        having an anode reactant introduced thereto via at least one        anode reactant flow channel;    -   (b) a cathode comprising a quantity of cathode catalyst, said        cathode having a cathode reactant introduced thereto via at        least one cathode reactant flow channel;    -   (c) a polymer electrolyte membrane interposed between said anode        and said cathode.

At least a portion of the cathode catalyst is directly exposed togaseous CO₂ during electrolysis. The device satisfies a test comprising:

-   -   (1) with the anode reactant flow channels open to atmospheric        air, directing a stream of CO₂ humidified at 50° C. into the        cathode reactant flow channels facing the polymer electrolyte        membrane while the fuel cell hardware assembly is at room        temperature and atmospheric pressure;    -   (2) applying a cell potential of 3.0 V via an electrical        connection between the anode and the cathode with the device at        room temperature;    -   (3) measuring the current across the cell and concentration of        CO and H₂ at the exit of the cathode flow channel;    -   (4) calculating the CO selectivity as follows:

${Selectivity} = \frac{\left( {{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} \right)}{\left( {{{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} + {H_{2}\mspace{11mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}}} \right)}$

-   -   (5) performing steps (1)-(4) with room temperature water being        directed through the anode reactant flow channels; and    -   (6) determining that the device has satisfied the test if the        average current density at the membrane is at least 20 mA/cm²,        where the cm² is measured as the area of the cathode gas        diffusion layer that is covered by catalyst particles, and CO        selectivity is at least 50% at a cell potential of 3.0 V in        either case.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least 50% by mass of thecathode catalyst is directly exposed to gaseous CO₂ during electrolysis.More preferably, at least 90% by mass of the cathode catalyst isdirectly exposed to gaseous CO₂ during electrolysis.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the membrane is an anionexchange membrane. At least a portion of the membrane can be a HelperMembrane identifiable by applying a test comprising:

-   -   (1) preparing a cathode comprising 6 mg/cm² of silver        nanoparticles on a carbon fiber paper gas diffusion layer;    -   (2) preparing an anode comprising 3 mg/cm² of RuO₂ on a carbon        fiber paper gas diffusion paper;    -   (3) preparing a polymer electrolyte membrane test material;    -   (4) interposing the membrane test material between the anode and        the cathode, the side of cathode having the silver nanoparticles        disposed thereon facing one side of the membrane and the side of        the anode having RuO₂ disposed thereon facing the other side of        the membrane, thereby forming a membrane electrode assembly;    -   (5) mounting the membrane electrode assembly in a fuel cell        hardware assembly;    -   (6) directing a stream of CO₂ humidified at 50° C. into the        cathode reactant flow channels while the fuel cell hardware        assembly is at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, with        the anode reactant flow channels left open to the atmosphere at        room temperature and pressure;    -   (7) applying a cell potential of 3.0 V via an electrical        connection between the anode and the cathode;    -   (8) measuring the current across the cell and the concentration        of CO and H₂ at the exit of the cathode flow channel;    -   (9) calculating the CO selectivity as follows:

${{Selectivity} = \frac{\left( {{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} \right)}{\left( {{{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} + {H_{2}\mspace{11mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}}} \right)}};$

and

-   -   (10) identifying the membrane as a Helper Membrane if the        average current density at the membrane is at least 20 mA/cm²,        where the cm² is measured as the area of the cathode gas        diffusion layer that is covered by catalyst particles, and CO        selectivity is at least 50% at a cell potential of 3.0 V.

The polymer electrolyte membrane can be entirely a Helper Membrane. TheHelper Membrane preferably comprises a polymer containing at least oneof an imidazolium ligand, a pyridinium ligand and a phosphonium ligand.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the anode and cathode catalystsare each applied as a coating facing the membrane.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the polymer electrolytemembrane is essentially immiscible in water.

In a preferred embodiment of the device, the reaction product isselected from the group consisting of CO, HCO⁻, H₂CO, (HCO₂)⁻, H₂CO₂,CH₃OH, CH₄, C₂H₄, CH₃CH₂OH, CH₃COO⁻, CH₃COOH, C₂H₆, (COOH)₂, (COO⁻)₂,H₂C═CHCOOH, and CF₃COOH.

The device can further comprise a Catalytically Active Element. TheCatalytically Active Element is preferably selected from the groupconsisting of Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, Sb, Bi, Zn and In.

A preferred polymer electrolyte membrane comprises a polymer in which atleast one constituent monomer is (p-vinylbenzyl)-R, where R is selectedfrom the group consisting of imidazoliums, pyridiniums and phosphoniums,and in which the membrane comprises 15%-90% by weight of polymerized(p-vinylbenzyl)-R.

In a preferred embodiment, the membrane comprises polystyrene. Themembrane preferably has a thickness of 25-1000 micrometers. The membranecan further comprise a copolymer of at least one of methyl methacrylateand butylacrylate. The membrane can further comprise at least one of apolyolefin, a chlorinated polyolefin, a fluorinated polyolefin, and apolymer comprising at least one of cyclic amines, phenyls, nitrogen orcarboxylate (—COO—) groups in its repeating unit.

In a preferred embodiment of the membrane, R is selected from at leastone of:

(a) imidazoliums of the formula:

-   -   where R₁-R₅ are each independently selected from the group        consisting of hydrogen, halides, linear alkyls, branched alkyls,        cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls,        heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof;

(b) pyridiniums of the formula:

-   -   where R₆-R₁₁ are each independently selected from the group        consisting of hydrogen, halides, linear alkyls, branched alkyls,        cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls,        heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof; and

(c) phosphoniums of the formula:

P⁺(R₁₂R₁₃R₁₄R₁₅)

-   -   where R₁₂-R₁₅ are each independently selected from the group        consisting of hydrogen, halides, linear alkyls, branched alkyls,        cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls,        heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof.

In a preferred embodiment of the membrane, R is imidazolium, pyridiniumor a polymer thereof, in which no aromatic nitrogen is attached tohydrogen.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an exploded side view of a fuel cell hardware assemblyincluding a membrane electrode assembly interposed between two fluidflow field plates having reactant flow channels formed in the majorsurfaces of the plates facing the electrodes.

FIG. 2 is an exploded side view of a fuel cell hardware assemblyincluding a membrane electrode assembly having integral reactant flowchannels interposed between two separator layers.

FIG. 3 shows the synthetic route for imidazolium based polymers.Imidazolium refers to positively charged imidazole ligands.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

It is understood that the process is not limited to the particularmethodology, protocols and reagents described herein, as these can varyas persons familiar with the technology involved here will recognize. Itis also to be understood that the terminology used herein is used forthe purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is notintended to limit the scope of the process. It also is to be noted thatas used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,”and “the” include the plural reference unless the context clearlydictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to “a linker” is areference to one or more linkers and equivalents thereof known to thoseskilled in the art. Similarly, the phrase “and/or” is used to indicateone or both stated cases can occur, for example, A and/or B includes (Aand B) and (A or B).

Unless defined otherwise, technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skillin the art to which the process pertains. The embodiments of the processand the various features and advantageous details thereof are explainedmore fully with reference to the non-limiting embodiments and/orillustrated in the accompanying drawings and detailed in the followingdescription. It should be noted that the features illustrated in thedrawings are not necessarily drawn to scale, and features of oneembodiment can be employed with other embodiments as the skilled artisanwould recognize, even if not explicitly stated herein.

Any numerical value ranges recited herein include all values from thelower value to the upper value in increments of one unit, provided thatthere is a separation of at least two units between any lower value andany higher value. As an example, if it is stated that the concentrationof a component or value of a process variable such as, for example,size, angle size, pressure, time and the like, is, for example, from 1to 98, specifically from 20 to 80, more specifically from 30 to 70, itis intended that values such as 15 to 85, 22 to 68, 43 to 51, 30 to 32,and the like, are expressly enumerated in this specification. For valueswhich are less than one, one unit is considered to be 0.0001, 0.001,0.01 or 0.1 as appropriate. These are only examples of what isspecifically intended and all possible combinations of numerical valuesbetween the lowest value and the highest value are to be treated in asimilar manner.

Moreover, provided immediately below is a “Definitions” section, wherecertain terms related to the process are defined specifically.Particular methods, devices, and materials are described, although anymethods and materials similar or equivalent to those described hereincan be used in the practice or testing of the process.

DEFINITIONS

The term “electrochemical conversion of CO₂” as used here refers to anyelectrochemical process where carbon dioxide, carbonate, or bicarbonateis converted into another chemical substance in any step of the process.

The term polymer electrolyte membrane refers to both cation exchangemembranes, which generally comprise polymers having multiple covalentlyattached negatively charged groups, and anion exchange membranes, whichgenerally comprise polymers having multiple covalently attachedpositively charged groups. Typical cation exchange membranes includeproton conducting membranes, such as the perfluorosulfonic acid polymeravailable under the trade designation NAFION from E. I. du Pont deNemours and Company (DuPont) of Wilmington, Del.

The term “anion exchange membrane electrolyzer” as used here refers toan electrolyzer with an anion-conducting polymer electrolyte membraneseparating the anode from the cathode.

The term “liquid free cathode” refers to an electrolyzer where there areno bulk liquids in direct contact with the cathode during electrolysis.There can be a thin liquid film on or in the cathode, however, andoccasional wash, or rehydration of the cathode with liquids could occur.

The term “faradaic efficiency” as used here refers to the fraction ofthe electrons applied to the cell that participate in reactionsproducing carbon containing products.

The term “EMIM” as used here refers to 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazoliumcations.

The term “Hydrogen Evolution Reaction” also called “HER” as used hererefers to the electrochemical reaction 2H⁺+2e⁻→H₂.

The term “MEA” as used here refers to a membrane electrode assembly.

The Term “CV” refers to cyclic voltammetry.

The term “Millipore water” is water that is produced by a Milliporefiltration system with a resistivity of at least 18.2 megaohm-cm.

The term “SPEEK” as used here refers to sulfonated poly (ether etherketone).

The term “PVA” as used here refers to polyvinyl alcohol.

The term “PEI” as used here refers to polyethylenimine.

The term “GC” as used here refers to a gas chromatograph.

The term “imidazolium” as used here refers to a positively chargedligand containing an imidazole group. This includes a bare imidazole ora substituted imidazole. Ligands of the form:

where R₁-R₅ are each independently selected from hydrogen, halideslinear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls,heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof arespecifically included.

The term “pyridinium” as used here refers to a positively charged ligandcontaining a pyridine group. This includes a bare pyridine or asubstituted pyridine. Ligands of the form:

where R₆-R₁₁ are each independently selected from hydrogen, halides,linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls,heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof arespecifically included.

The term “phosphonium” as used here refers to a positively chargedligand containing phosphorous. This includes substituted phosphorous.Ligands of the form:

P⁺(R₁₂R₁₃R₁₄R₁₅)

where R₁₂-R₁₅ are each independently selected from hydrogen, halides,linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls,heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof arespecifically included.The term “catalyst is directly exposed to gaseous CO₂” as used hererefers to the case where CO₂ gas is within 2 mm of the catalyst or thegas diffusion layer supporting the catalyst, preferably within 0.2 mm.

Specific Description

FIG. 1 illustrates a fuel cell hardware assembly 30, which includes amembrane electrode assembly 32 interposed between rigid flow fieldplates 34 and 36, typically formed of graphite or a graphite compositematerial. Membrane electrode assembly 32 consists of a polymerelectrolyte (ion exchange) membrane 42 interposed between twoelectrodes, namely, anode 44 and cathode 46. Anode 44 and cathode 46 aretypically formed of porous electrically conductive sheet material,preferably carbon fiber paper, and have planar major surfaces.Electrodes 44 and 46 have a thin layer of catalyst material disposed ontheir major surfaces at the interface with membrane 42 to render themelectrochemically active.

As shown in FIG. 1, anode flow field plate 34 has at least one openfaced channel 34 a engraved, milled or molded in its major surfacefacing membrane 42. Similarly, cathode flow field plate 36 has at leastone open faced channel 36 a engraved, milled or molded in its majorsurface facing membrane 42. When assembled against the cooperatingsurfaces of electrodes 44 and 46, channels 34 a and 36 a form thereactant flow field passages for the anode reactant (fuel) stream andcathode reactant (oxidant) stream, respectively.

Turning to FIG. 2, a fuel cell hardware assembly 50 employs a membraneelectrode assembly 52 having integral reactant fluid flow channels. Fuelcell hardware assembly 50 includes membrane electrode assembly 52interposed between lightweight separator layers 54 and 56, which aresubstantially impermeable to the flow of reactant fluid therethrough.Membrane electrode assembly 52 consists of a polymer electrolyte (ionexchange) membrane 62 interposed between two electrodes, namely, anode64 and cathode 66. Anode 64 and cathode 66 are formed of porouselectrically conductive sheet material, preferably carbon fiber paper.Electrodes 64 and 66 have a thin layer of catalyst material disposed ontheir major surfaces at the interface with membrane 62 to render themelectrochemically active.

As shown in FIG. 2, anode 64 has at least one open faced channel 64 aformed in its surface facing away from membrane 62. Similarly, cathode66 has at least one open faced channel 66 a formed in its surface facingaway from membrane 62. When assembled against the cooperating surfacesof separator layers 54 and 56, channels 64 a and 66 a form the reactantflow field passages for the fuel and oxidant streams, respectively.

During operation as an electrolyzer or flow battery, reactants or asolution containing reactants are fed into the cell. Then a voltage isapplied between the anode and the cathode, to promote an electrochemicalreaction.

Alternately, when the device is used as a fuel cell power generator,reactants or a solution containing reactants are fed into the cell, anda voltage develops between the anode and cathode. This voltage canproduce a current through an external circuit connecting the anode andcathode.

When an electrochemical cell is used as a CO₂ conversion system, areactant comprising CO₂, carbonate or bicarbonate is fed into the cell.A voltage is applied to the cell, and the CO₂ reacts to form newchemical compounds.

The present electrochemical device for the electrochemical conversion ofCO₂, water, carbonate, and/or bicarbonate into another chemicalsubstance has an anode, a cathode, and a Helper Membrane.

In some embodiments there are no, or substantially no, bulk liquids incontact with the cathode during cell operation, and the faradaicefficiency for CO₂ conversion is at least 33%, more preferably at least50%, or most preferably at least 80%.

The device can also include at least one Catalytically Active Element.“Catalytically Active Element” as used here refers to a chemical elementthat can serve as a catalyst for the electrochemical conversion of CO₂or another species of interest in a desired reaction. In particular, thedevice can include one or more of the following Catalytically ActiveElements: V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd,Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si, In, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm,Tb, La, Ce, and Nd. Research has established that Pt, Pd, Au, Ag, Cu,Ni, Fe, Sn, Bi, Co, In, Ru and Rh work well with Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, Sb, Bi,and In working especially well. The products of the reaction caninclude, among other things: CO, HCO⁻, H₂CO, (HCO₂)⁻, H₂CO₂, CH₃OH, CH₄,C₂H₄, CH₃CH₂OH, CH₃COO⁻, CH₃COOH, C₂H₆, (COOH)₂, (COO)₂, H₂C═CHCOOH,CF₃COOH, other organic acids, carbonates, di-phenyl carbonate, andpolycarbonates.

Without further elaboration, it is believed that persons familiar withthe technology involved here using the preceding description can utilizethe invention to the fullest extent. The following examples areillustrative only, and are not meant to be an exhaustive list of allpossible embodiments, applications or modifications of the invention.

Specific Example 1

Specific Example 1 illustrates a procedure to create an electrolyzerwith a Helper Membrane. The embodiment of Specific Example 1demonstrates improved performance over earlier electrochemical cellsused for CO₂ conversion.

Measurements were conducted in an electrolysis cell with an anode,cathode, and anion-conducting polymer electrolyte membrane held in FuelCell Technologies 5 cm² fuel cell hardware assembly with serpentine flowfields.

The cathode in Specific Example 1 was prepared as follows. Silver inkwas made by mixing 30 mg of silver nanoparticles (20-40 nm, 45509, AlfaAesar, Ward Hill, Mass.) with 0.1 ml deionized water (18.2 Mohm, EMDMillipore, Billerica, Mass.) and 0.2 ml isopropanol (3032-16, MacronFine Chemicals, Avantor Performance Materials, Center Valley, Pa.). Themixture was then sonicated for 1 minute. The silver ink was thenhand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion PowerInc., New Castle, Del.) covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm.

The anode in Specific Example 1 was prepared as follows. RuO₂ ink wasmade by mixing 15 mg of RuO₂ (11804, Alfa Aesar) with 0.2 ml deionizedwater (18.2 Mohm Millipore), 0.2 ml isopropanol (3032-16, Macron) and0.1 ml of 5% Nafion solution (1100EW, DuPont, Wilmington, Del.). TheRuO₂ ink was then hand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35BC GDL, Ion Power, Inc.) covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm.

The PSMMIM membrane was prepared following the synthetic route in FIG.3. “PSMMIM” refers to a co-polymer of polystyrene and poly1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-3-methyl-imidazolium:

where X⁻ is an anion and m>0 and n>0.

The first inhibitor free styrene was prepared by washing styrene (SigmaAldrich, Saint Louis, Mo.) with two equal volumes of 7.5% aqueous sodiumhydroxide. The inhibitor free styrene was then washed with four equalvolumes of water to make sure it was neutralized, and was then driedover anhydrous magnesium sulfate. Inhibitor TBC in 4-vinylbenzylchloride (4-VBC) was removed by extraction with 0.5% potassium hydroxidesolution until a colorless extract was obtained. This extract was washedwith water until neutral and then was dried over anhydrous magnesiumsulfate.

Poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene) was then synthesized by heatinga solution of inhibitor free styrene (Sigma-Aldrich) (10.0581 g, 96.57mmol) and 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (Sigma-Aldrich) (6.2323 g, 40.84 mmol)in chlorobenzene (Sigma-Aldrich) (15 ml) at 60-65° C. in an oil bath for12-18 hours under argon gas with AIBN (α,α′-Azoisobutyronitrile,Sigma-Aldrich) (0.1613 g, 0.99 wt % based on the total monomers weight)as initiator. The copolymer was precipitated in CH₃OH/THF(methanol/tetrahydrofuran) and dried under vacuum.

Polystyrene methyl-methyimidazolium chloride (PSMMIM 2.3:1) wassynthesized by adding 1-methylimidazole (Sigma-Aldrich) (2.8650 g,0.0349 mol) to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (5.0034 g) inanhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (30 mL). Themixture was then stirred at room temperature for 0.5-1 hour, and thenheated at 110-120° C. for 50.3 hours to form a PSMMIM 2.3:1 solution.

“4-VBC-co-St” or “poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene)” as used hererefers to a co-polymer of styrene and 4-vinylbenzyl chloride:

The membranes were prepared by casting the PSMMIM solution preparedabove directly onto a flat glass surface. The thickness of the solutionon the glass was controlled by a film applicator (MTI Corporation,Richmond, Calif.) with an adjustable doctor blade. The membranes werethen dried in a vacuum oven at 80° C. for 300 minutes, and then 120° C.for 200 minutes. Chloride ion in the membranes was removed by soakingthe membranes in 1 M KOH solution for 24 hours.

The resultant membrane was tested and determined to meet theclassification as a Helper Membrane according to the test set forth inthe Summary of the Invention section of the present application. Themembrane was sandwiched between the anode and the cathode with the metallayers on the anode and cathode facing the membrane, and the wholeassembly was mounted in a Fuel Cell Technologies 5 cm² fuel cellhardware assembly with serpentine flow fields.

CO₂ humidified at 50° C. was fed into the cathode at a rate of 5 sccm,the cell was operated at atmospheric pressure with the anode inlet andoutlet left open to the atmosphere, 3.0 V were applied to the cell, andthe cathode output composition was analyzed with an Agilent 6890 gaschromatograph (GC)/TCD (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, Calif.)equipped with a Carboxen 1010 PLOT GC column (30 m×320 um) (SigmaAldrich). No heating was applied to the cell.

Initially the cell produced 100 mA/cm², but the current dropped and heldsteady at 80 mA/cm² after a few minutes of operation. GC analysis after30 minutes of operation showed that the output of the cell containedCO₂, CO and a small amount of hydrogen. Selectivity was calculated at94% where:

${Selectivity} = \frac{\left( {{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} \right)}{\left( {{{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} + {H_{2}\mspace{11mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}}} \right)}$

Therefore PSMMIM is properly classified as a Helper Membrane.

In a second trial, water was fed into the anode of the cell to keep thePSMMIM hydrated. In that case the membrane was able to maintain over 90%selectivity for 200 hours.

During both runs the leakage current was checked and was negligible.Furthermore there were no other products on the cathode. As such, thefaradaic efficiency was equal to the Selectivity.

Comparative Example 1

Comparative Example 1 measured the steady state current and faradaicefficiency of an electrolyzer constructed following the teachings of the'583 publication, which claimed to disclose a system that “may provideselectivity of methanol as part of the organic product mixture, with a30% to 95% faradaic yield for carbon dioxide to methanol, with theremainder evolving hydrogen.” However the '583 publication fails toprovide data demonstrating a 30% to 95% faradaic yield when the cathodeis liquid free. In Comparative Example 1 a cell was built following theteachings in the '583 publication and the faradaic efficiency wasmeasured at room temperature with a liquid free cathode.

Following the teachings in the '583 publication, the cathode wasprepared as follows. First a platinum nanoparticle ink was made bymixing 10 mg of platinum black (12755, Alfa Aesar) with 0.2 ml deionizedwater (18.2 Mohm Millipore) and 0.2 ml isopropanol (3032-16, Macron).The mixture was then sonicated for 1 minute. The platinum nanoparticleink was then hand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BCGDL, Ion Power) covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm.

The platinum catalyst layer was then coated with a thin layer of poly(4-vinylpyridine) (P4VP, average MW: ˜60,000, Sigma Aldrich) by brushing0.2 ml of 1% P4VP ethanol solution. Then the platinum catalyst layer wasimmersed in 1 M H₂SO₄ solution (A300C-212, Fisher Chemical, Pittsburgh,Pa.) to protonate pyridine.

The anode was prepared as in Specific Example 1. Specifically, RuO₂ inkwas made by mixing 15 mg of RuO₂ (11804, Alfa Aesar) with 0.2 mldeionized water (18.2 Mohm Millipore), 0.2 ml isopropanol (3032-16,Macron) and 0.1 ml of 5% Nafion solution (1100EW, DuPont). The RuO₂ inkwas then hand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL,Ion Power) covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm.

Next a proton exchange membrane (Nafion 117, DuPont) was sandwichedbetween the anode and cathode with the metal coatings facing themembrane, and the whole assembly was mounted in Fuel Cell Technologies 5cm² fuel cell hardware assembly with serpentine flow fields.

The cell was tested using the procedures in Specific Example 1.Specifically CO₂ humidified at 50° C. was fed into the cathode at a rateof 5 sccm, the cell was at room temperature and atmospheric pressure,the anode inlet and outlet were left open to the atmosphere, 3.0 V wereapplied to the cell, and the cathode output composition was analyzedwith an Agilent 6890 gas chromatograph (GC)/TCD equipped with a Carboxen1010 PLOT GC column (30 m×320 um). No heating was applied to the cell.

The total cell current was found to be 80 mA/cm² but no methanol orother CO₂ reduction products could be detected. Instead hydrogen was theonly product detected by GC. There was no evidence for methanolcondensation in the tubing. Based on the measurements, the selectivityand faradaic efficiency of a cell constructed following the teachings ofthe '583 publication with a liquid free cathode is near zero. The CO₂current is also near zero at room temperature.

Note that the GC results show that the methanol concentration in the gasphase is negligible, and methanol cannot condense at room temperatureuntil the partial pressure of methanol in the gas phase reaches about 13kPa, where 13 kPa is the vapor pressure of methanol at room temperature.

SHIRONITA I also was unable to detect CO₂ reduction products in asimilar experiment, but was able to detect products when heating thecell to 90° C. However in any case the faradaic efficiency was stilllow.

Table 1 lists the observed faradaic efficiencies and CO₂ conversioncurrents at room temperature for various membranes and catalyst(s)combinations for various cells disclosed in prior research as well asthe results from Specific Example 1 and Comparative Example 1. Thefaradaic efficiencies were calculated after 1 hour in a steady state,constant voltage experiment. In some cases higher efficiencies arereported by cycling the potential. As can be seen, the use of the HelperMembrane raised the faradaic efficiency by roughly a factor of 3 and theproduct current by a factor of 16.

TABLE 1 Maximum CO₂ Total Current at Conversion Faradaic cell potential3 V Current at ≦3 V Reference efficiency % Membrane Catalyst (mA/cm²)(mA/cm²) Delacourt, C., et al., “Design of an 0 Nafion Ag Not 0Electrochemical Cell Making Syngas reported (CO + H₂) from CO₂ and H₂OReduction at Room Temperature”, J. Electrochem. Soc. 155 (2008), pagesB42-B49. Dewolf, D., et al. “The 19 Nafion Cu 1 0.2 electrochemicalreduction of CO₂ to CH₄ and C₂H₄ at Cu/Nafion electrodes (solid polymerelectrolyte structures)” Catalysis Letters 1 (1988), pages 73-80.Aeshala, L., et al., “Effect of solid 15 Nafion Cu 5.6 0.8 polymerelectrolyte on SPEEK electrochemical reduction of CO₂”, AlkaliSeparation and Purification doped PVA Technology 94 (2012), pages131-137. Aeshala, L., et al., “Effect of cationic 32 Acid doped Cu 6 1.7and anionic solid polymer electrolyte CMI-7000 on direct electrochemicalreduction of Alkali gaseous CO₂ to fuel”, Journal of CO ₂ doped AMI-Utilization 3 (2013), pages 49-55. 7001 Genovese, C., et al.. “AGas-phase 12 Nafion Pt/Fe 20 2.4 Electrochemical Reactor for CarbonDioxide Reduction Back to Liquid Fuels”, AIDIC Conference Series 11(2013), pages 151-160. Aeshala, L., et al., “Electrochemical 20 AlkaliCu 20 4 conversion of CO₂ to fuels: tuning of doped the reaction zoneusing suitable PVA/PEI functional groups in a solid polymerelectrolyte”, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 16 (2014), pages 17588-17594.Specific Example 1 94 PSMMIM Ag 80 75 Comparative Example 1 ~0 Nafion Pt80 0

Comparative Example 2

Comparative Example 2 was conducted to determine whether Nafion,sulfonated Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) “SPEEK”, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA),polyethylenimine (PEI), CMI-7000, AMI 7001, phosphoric acid doped PBI orNeosepta membranes act as Helper Membranes when pretreated as describedin the earlier literature as described in Table 1.

Nafion 117 was purchased from Ion Power Technologies, Inc., ofWilmington, Del. It was boiled in 5% H₂O₂ for 1 hour and it was thenboiled in Millipore water for 1 hour. The Nafion 117 was then boiled in0.5 M sulfuric acid for an hour, and then boiled again in Milliporewater for 1 hour.

Neosepta BP-1E was purchased from Ameridia Division of Eurodia IndustrieS.A. in Somerset, N.J. It was pretreated by dipping it in water asrecommended by the manufacturer. It was then tested to determine whetherit met the classification as a Helper Membrane according to the test setforth in the Summary of the Invention section of the presentapplication. The selectivity was 34%, below the 50% require to beclassified as a Helper Membrane.

CMI-7000 and AMI-7001 were purchased from Membranes International Inc.of Ringwood, N.J. An alkali doped AMI-7001 was prepared following theprocedure outlined in Aeshala, L., et al., “Effect of cationic andanionic solid polymer electrolyte on direct electrochemical reduction ofgaseous CO₂ to fuel”, Journal of CO ₂ Utilization 3 (2013), pages 49-55(“AESHALA I”). First the AMI-7001 was soaked in a 0.5 molar potassiumhydroxide (KOH) solution overnight to create basic sites in themembrane. Excess KOH was then washed off by soaking the membrane inwater for 6 hours. The membrane was then tested to determine whether itmet the classification as a Helper Membrane according to the test setforth in the Summary of the Invention section of the presentapplication. Both the selectivity (25%) and product current (2.5 mA/cm²)were low, as reported in Table 2 below, indicating that an alkali dopedAMI-7001 membrane as pretreated according to AESHALA I is not a HelperMembrane.

Similarly, the acid doped CMI-7000 was pretreated following theprocedure outlined in AESHALA I. First the membrane was soaked in 0.5 MH₂SO₄ overnight, then it was soaked in water for 6 hours. The membranewas then tested to determine whether it met the classification as aHelper Membrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of theInvention section of the present application. GC analysis showed onlytraces of CO formation, indicating that this membrane is not a HelperMembrane.

Alkali doped PVA was synthesized following the procedure outlined inAeshala, L., et al., “Effect of solid polymer electrolyte onelectrochemical reduction of CO₂ ”, Separation and PurificationTechnology 94 (2012), pages 131-137 (“AESHALA II”). PVA (stock #363081)was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Corporation. 9 grams of PVA weredissolved in 90 ml of water at 90° C. The solution was cast onto a petridish. After the cast films had dried, they were immersed inglutaraldehyde (10% in acetone solutions) mixed with small quantities ofcatalytic HCl for one hour to encourage cross-linking. The films werethen rinsed several times with Millipore water, activated by immersionin 0.5 M NaOH for 24 hours, and then rinsed before use. The membrane wasthen tested to determine whether it met the classification as a HelperMembrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of the Inventionsection of the present application. While the selectivity (52%) wasrelatively high, the product current (7.5 mA/cm²) was low, as reportedin Table 2 below, indicating that an alkali doped PVA membrane aspretreated according to AESHALA II is not a Helper Membrane.

An alkali doped PVA/PEI composite was synthesized following theprocedure outlined in Aeshala, L., et al., “Electrochemical conversionof CO₂ to fuels: tuning of the reaction zone using suitable functionalgroups in a solid polymer electrolyte”, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 16(2014), pages 17588-17594 (AESHALA III). A PEI (item number 408727) waspurchased from Sigma-Aldrich Corporation. 6 grams of PVA and 3 grams ofPEI were dissolved in 90 ml of water at 90° C. The solution was castonto a petri dish. After the cast films had dried, they were immersed inglutaraldehyde (10% in acetone solutions) mixed with small quantities ofcatalytic HCl for one hour to encourage cross-linking. The films werethen rinsed several times with Millipore water. They were then activatedby immersion in 0.5 M NaOH for 24 hours and then rinsed before use.

The membrane was then tested to determine whether it met theclassification as a Helper Membrane according to the test set forth inthe Summary of the Invention section of the present application. Boththe selectivity (16%) and the product current (1.6 mA/cm²) were low, asreported in Table 2 below, indicating that an alkali doped PEI/PVAmembrane as pretreated according to AESHALA III is not a HelperMembrane.

SPEEK was prepared following the procedure in the procedure outlined inAESHALA II. A PEEK film was purchased from CS Hyde Company (Lake Villa,Ill.). 1 g of the PEEK was exposed to 50 ml of concentrated sulfuricacid for 50 hours under constant agitation. All of the PEEK haddissolved at the end of the 50 hours and had converted to SPEEK. 200 mlof Millipore water was placed in an ice bath and allowed to cool to near0° C. The SPEEK solution was then slowly poured into the Millipore waterunder constant agitation. The SPEEK precipitated out of the watersolution, was filtered, and was then washed multiple times to removeexcess sulfuric acid. The SPEEK was then dried at 100° C. for 8 hours ina vacuum oven. Next the SPEEK was dissolved in dimethylacetamide. Theresultant solution was cast on a glass slide. The membrane was thentested to determine whether it met the classification as a HelperMembrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of the Inventionsection of the present application. Both the selectivity (2.5%) and theproduct current (0.13 mA/cm²) were low, as reported in Table 2 below,indicating that a SPEEK membrane as pretreated according to AESHALA IIis not a Helper Membrane.

Phosphoric Acid doped PBI was prepared as follows. PBI was purchasedfrom PBI Performance Products, Inc. (Rock Hill, S.C.) and acid doped byimmersing it in 0.5 M H₃PO₄ for 24 hours. It was then soaked in waterfor 1 hour to remove excess acid. The membrane was then tested todetermine whether it met the classification as a Helper Membraneaccording to the test set forth in the Summary of the Invention sectionof the present application. Again the current and selectivity were low.

Notice that Nafion, SPEEK, alkali doped PVA, alkali doped PVA/PEI, Aciddoped CMI-7000, Alkali doped AMI-7001 Neosepta, and P-PBI are not HelperMembranes.

Specific Example 2

The object of this example was to determine whether changes in themembrane doping could activate a membrane for CO₂ conversion. AMI-7001and CMI-7000 were chosen as test examples since they have the samepolystyrene backbone as in PSMMIM and PSDMIM, but different aminegroups, so they might be able to be activated.

The AMI-7001 was pretreated by soaking the membrane in a 1 M NaClsolution for one hour, followed by soaking in water for about 3 hours.

The selectivity rose to 70%. The current density was still low (3.5mA/cm²). So this membrane is still not a Helper Membrane but itsperformance is much better.

The CMI-7000 was pretreated using the same procedure. Again, theselectivity rose to 72%. The current density was still low (15 mA/cm²).

Still, it is possible that the current could be raised if thinnermembranes were made with the same bulk composition as AMI-7001 andCMI-7000, and then the membranes were doped with NaCl. Such a membranecould be a Helper Membrane.

Specific Example 3

The objective of Specific Example 3 is to provide another example of aHelper Membrane.

Preparation of PSDMIM: Poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene) wasprepared as in Specific Example 2. 1,2-dimethylimiazole (Sigma-Aldrich)(2.8455 g, 0.0296 mol) is added to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St)(5.0907 g) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (30mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 0.5-1 hour, andthen heated at 110-120° C. for 66.92 hours. PSDMIM was obtained as ayellowish solid after purification by precipitation into diethyl ether.

A PSDMIM membrane was formed as in Specific Example 2. Then the membranewas tested as in Specific Example 1. The results are given in Table 2below. PSDMIM refers to a co-polymer of styrene and1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-2,3-dimethyl-imidazolium:

where X⁻ is a anion and m>0 and n>0.

Specific Example 4

The objective of Specific Example 4 is to provide an example of a HelperMembrane with a pyridinium group.

Preparation of PSMP: poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene) wasprepared as in Specific Example 2. Pyridine (Sigma-Aldrich) is added tothe solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (5.0907 g) in anhydrousN,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (30 mL). The mixture wasstirred at room temperature for 0.5-1 hour, and then heated at 110-120°C. for 66.92 hours. PSMP was obtained as a brownish solid afterpurification by precipitation into diethyl ether. PSMP refers to amaterial that contains a co-polymer of styrene and1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium.

A PSMP membrane was formed as in Specific Example 2. The resultantmembrane did not have a uniform thickness, but the membrane was stillsuitable to test. The film was tested as in Specific Example 1 andqualified as a Helper Membrane.

Table 2 shows the faradaic efficacies and currents observed for theHelper Membranes disclosed in this application along with those of themembranes discussed in earlier studies. In all cases the membranes weretested and determined to meet the classification as a Helper Membraneaccording to the test set forth in the Summary of the Invention sectionof the present application.

TABLE 2 Current for carbon Current at 3 V containing products MembraneSelectivity (mA/cm²) (mA/cm²) Membranes from the Nafion 117  0% 72 0previous literature Neosepta 34% 24 8 Acid doped¹ CMI-7000 0.02%   350.007 Alkali doped¹ AMI-7001 25% 10 2.5 SPEEK² 2.5%  5 0.13 Alkali dopedPVA² 52% 15 7.5 Alkali doped PEI/PVA³ 16% 10 1.6 H₃PO₄ doped PBI 14.7%  8 1.2 Membranes NaCl doped⁴ CMI-7000 73% 21 15 disclosed here NaCldoped⁴ AMI-7001 70% 5 3.5 PSMMIM⁴ 95% 80 75 PSDMIM⁴ 93% 80 72 PSMP⁴ 83%25 20.8 ¹Doped following the procedure in AESHALA I. ²Doped by theprocedure in AESHALA II ³Doped by the procedure in AESHALA III ⁴Doped bya procedure disclosed here

Specific Example 5

The objective of this example was to examine the effects of the fractionof the amine in the polymer on the performance. The Helper Membrane wasmade from methylimidazolium-poly(4-vinylbenzylchloride-co-styrene)chloride (PSMIM-Cl) polymer solution of various compositions.

PSMIM-Cl solution (in anhydrous dimethylformamide) was prepared by atwo-step reaction process: (1) Poly(4-VBC-co-St) synthesis from thereaction of styrene (St) with 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (4-VBC) inchlorobenzene under argon gas (S.J. Smith, Urbana, Ill.) protection with2,2′-Azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) as initiator. (2)Poly(4-VBC-co-St) was reacted with 1-methylimidazole at 50-120° C. formore than 48 hours to obtained PSMIM-Cl polymer solution.

Synthesis of poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene): A solution ofinhibitor free styrene (Sigma-Aldrich) (10.0581 g, 96.57 mmol) and4-vinylbenzyl chloride (Sigma-Aldrich) (6.2323 g, 40.84 mmol) inchlorobenzene (Sigma-Aldrich) (15 ml) was heated at 60-65° C. in an oilbath for 12-18 hours under argon gas with AIBN (Sigma-Aldrich) (0.1613g, 0.99 wt % based on the total monomers weight) as initiator. Thecopolymer was precipitated in CH₃OH/THF and dried under vacuum. VBCcontent in the copolymer was 38.26 wt %.

Synthesis of methylimidazolium-poly(4-VBC-co-St) chloride(MIM-poly(4-VBC-co-St)-Cl): 1-methylimiazole (Sigma-Aldrich) (2.8650 g,0.0349 mol) was added to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (5.0034g) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (30 ml). Themixture was stirred at room temperature for 0.5-1 hour, and then heatedat 110-120° C. for 50.3 hours.

Membranes preparation: The membrane preparation steps were: (1) CastPSMIM-Cl polymer solution prepared above onto a flat glass (8 cm×10 cm)with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (2) Put the glass plate with membranes in anoven (MTI Corporation); the membranes were then dried at 80° C. for 4hours and then 120° C. for another 2 hours under the protection ofnitrogen. (3) After the oven temperature cooled down to roomtemperature, the membranes were taken out and soaked in a 1 M KOH(Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, N.J.) bath. Membranes were peeled offfrom the substrates and soaked in 1 M KOH solution for at least 24 hoursfor complete anion exchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

The synthesis procedure for the PSMIM-Cl polymer solution with VBCcontent of 38.26 wt % and the membrane fabrication procedure were usedfor the synthesis of PSMIM-Cl with VBC compositions of 46 wt % and 59 wt% respectively. The testing results of these membranes are summarized inTable 3 below. Membrane current density increases with increasingfunctional group VBC content in the copolymer, while mechanical strengthof membranes get worse. The membrane with 59 wt % VBC is very soft andits mechanical strength is very weak.

TABLE 3 Membrane # 1 2 3 VBC in copolymer (wt %) 38 46 59 Cell potential(V) 3.0 2.8 2.8 Current (mA/cm²) 52 60 130 CO selectivity (%) 94.3893.35 94.88

Fitting the data to an exponential curve, and extrapolating to lower VBCcontent shows that the current will be above 20 mA/cm², where the cm² icm is measured as the area of the cathode gas diffusion layer that iscovered by catalyst particles, whenever there is at least 15% VBC in thepolymer. This corresponds to a styrene to(p-vinylbenzyl)-3-methyl-imidazolium ratio of no more than 7.

Specific Example 6

The objective of this example is to provide examples of reinforcedhelper membranes. In particular, Helper Membranes will be provided madefrom blends of methylimidazolium-poly(4-vinylbenzylchloride-co-styrene)chloride (PSMIM-Cl) and polymer matrix such as polybenzimidazole (PBI),poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,2-phenylene oxide) (PPO), Nylon 6/6, or polyethylene(PE).

PSMIM-Cl solution (in anhydrous dimethylformamide) was prepared by atwo-step reaction process: (1) poly(4-VBC-co-St) was synthesized fromthe reaction of styrene (St) with 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (4-VBC) inchlorobenzene under argon gas (S.J. Smith) protection with2,2′-Azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) as initiator; 2)poly(4-VBC-co-St) was reacted with imidazole at 50-120° C. for more than48 hours to obtained PSMIM-Cl solution.

PBI polymer solution was prepared by diluting 27.5264 g of about 26.6 wt% PBI solution (PBI Performance Products. Inc., Charlotte, N.C.) withanhydrous dimethylacetamide (DMAc) (Sigma Aldrich) to 78.3578 g. Theconcentration of the resulting PBI solution was 9.34 wt %.

Nylon 6/6 solution was prepared by adding 4.6065 g of Nylon 6/6 (SigmaAldrich) into 24.3218 g of about 97% formic acid (Acros Organics, Geel,Belgium) and 2.5625 g anhydrous methanol (Avantor Performance MaterialsInc.) mixture. Nylon pellets were allowed to dissolve for several hoursat room temperature, then in a Branson 2510 sonication bath (SonicsOnline, Richmond, Va.) until a homogeneous white emulsion was obtained.The concentration of the resulting Nylon solution is 14.83 wt %.

10.2 wt % PPO solution was prepared by dissolving 0.5099 g of PPO (SigmaAldrich) in 5 mL chlorobenzene (Fisher Scientific).

15 wt % PE solution was prepared by dissolving 4.5 g of PE (SigmaAldrich) in 30 ml xylenes (Fisher Scientific). PE completely dissolvedin xylenes at 70-80° C.

Preparation procedure of Helper Membrane #4 from blends of PSMIM-Cl andPBI: (1) Add 0.1 ml PBI polymer solution into 4 ml PSMIM-Cl solution(VBC content in the copolymer was 46 wt %) and light brown precipitatewas immediately formed. The solid in the polymer solution was dispersedby ultra-sonication with an ultrasonic probe (tip diameter 3 mm) (Sonic& Materials. Inc., Newtown, Conn.) until a homogeneous brown emulsionwas obtained. (2) Cast the resulting polymer solution on a glass plate(8 cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (3) Put the glass plate withmembranes in an oven (MTI Corporation); the membranes were then dried at80° C. for 4 hours and then 120° C. for another 3 hours under theprotection of nitrogen. (4) After oven temperature cooled down to roomtemperature, take the membranes out and soaked in a 1M KOH (FisherScientific) bath, membranes were peeled off from the substrates andsoaked in 1 M KOH solution for at least 24 hours for complete anionexchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

The obtained light brown PSMIM-Cl and PBI blend membranes weretransparent and homogeneous with very good mechanical strength.

The PSMIM-Cl and PBI blend membrane #4 preparation procedure was usedfor the preparation of PSMIM-Cl and PBI blend membranes #5, 6 and 7. Theratio of PSMIM-Cl solution to PBI solution was varied, as shown in Table4 below.

The membranes were tested and determined to meet the classification as aHelper Membrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of theInvention section of the present application. The testing results aresummarized in Table 4 below.

TABLE 4 Membrane # 4 5 6 7 VBC in copolymer (wt %) 46 46 46 59 PSMIM-Cl(ml) 4 2 4 4 PBI (ml) 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.5 Functional group in blend 45.2942.67 42.67 55.04 membrane (wt %) Cell potential (V) 3 3 3 3 Current(mA/cm²) 105 70 86 104 CO selectivity (%) 88.95 88.75 92.31 93.22

Preparation procedure of Helper Membrane from blends of PSMIM-Cl andPPO: (1) Add 0.5 ml of 10.2 wt % PPO polymer solution into 4 ml ofPSMIM-Cl solution (VBC content in copolymer was 46 wt %) and whiteprecipitate was immediately formed. The solid in the polymer solutionwas dispersed by ultra-sonication with an ultrasonic probe (tip diameter3 mm) (Sonic & Materials. Inc.) until no obvious large particles wereobserved. (2) The resulting polymer solution was cast on a glass plate(8 cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. Polymer phase separation wasobserved. (3) The glass plate with membranes was put in an oven (MTICorporation); the membranes were then dried at 80° C. for 4 hours andthen 120° C. for another 3 hours under the protection of nitrogen. (4)After the oven temperature cooled down to room temperature, themembranes were taken out and soaked in a 1 M KOH (Fisher Scientific)bath, membranes were peeled off from the substrates and soaked in 1 MKOH solution for at least 24 hours for complete anion exchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻)before testing.

The dried PSMIM-Cl and PPO blend membrane was transparent, and it turnedwhite in KOH solution. The membrane mechanical strength was good.

The membranes were tested and determined to meet the classification as aHelper Membrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of theInvention section of the present application. The testing results aresummarized in Table 5 below.

TABLE 5 Membrane # 8 VBC in copolymer (wt %) 46 PSMIM-Cl (ml) 4 PPO (ml)0.5 Functional group in blend membrane (wt %) 42.42 Cell potential (V) 3Current (mA/cm²) 105 CO selectivity (%) 87.17

Preparation procedure for Helper Membrane #9 from blends of PSMIM-Cl andNylon: (1) Added 1 ml 14.83 wt % nylon polymer solution into 4 mlPSMIM-Cl solution (VBC content in copolymer was 38 wt %) and whiteprecipitate was immediately formed. The solid in the polymer solutionwas dispersed by ultra-sonication with an ultrasonic probe (tip diameter3 mm) (Sonic & Materials. Inc.) until a homogeneous polymer solution wasobtained. (2) The resulting polymer solution was cast on a glass plate(8 cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (3) The membrane was air driedin the hood at room temperature overnight. (4) The glass plate withmembranes was put in an oven (MTI Corporation); the membranes were thendried at 80° C. for 4 hours and then 120° C. for another 3 hours undernitrogen protection. (5) After the oven temperature cooled down to roomtemperature, the membranes were taken out and soaked in a 1 M KOH(Fisher Scientific) bath, then the membranes were peeled off from thesubstrates and soaked in 1 M KOH solution for at least 24 hours forcomplete anion exchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

The obtained PSMIM-Cl and Nylon membrane was off-white and homogenouswith decent mechanical strength.

The PSMIM-Cl and Nylon blend membrane #9 preparation procedure was usedfor the preparation of PSMIM-Cl and Nylon blend membranes #10. The ratioof PSMIM-Cl solution to Nylon solution.

The membranes were tested and determined to meet the classification as aHelper Membrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of theInvention section of the present application. The testing results aresummarized in Table 6 below.

TABLE 6 Membrane # 9 10 VBC in copolymer (wt %) 38 46 PSMIM-Cl (ml) 4 4Nylon (ml) 1 0.5 Functional group in blend membrane (wt %) 30.00 40.94Cell potential (V) 3 3 Current (mA/cm²) 26 66 CO selectivity (%) 56.4084.58

Preparation procedure for Helper Membrane #11 from blends of PSMIM-Cland PE: (1) 1 ml 15 wt % PE hot polymer solution was added into 4 ml ofPSMIM-Cl solution (VBC content in copolymer was 46 wt %) and a whiteprecipitate was immediately formed. The solid in the polymer solutionwas dispersed by ultra-sonication with an ultrasonic probe (tip diameter3 mm) (Sonic & Materials. Inc.) until a homogeneous polymer solution wasobtained. (2) The resulting polymer solution was cast on a glass plate(8 cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. Polymer phase separation wasobserved. (3) The glass plate with membranes was put in an oven (MTICorporation); the membranes were then dried at 80° C. for 4 hours andthen 120° C. for another 3 hours under nitrogen protection. (4) Afterthe oven temperature cooled down to room temperature, the membranes weretaken out and soaked in a 1M KOH (Fisher Scientific) bath, then themembranes were peeled off from the substrates and soaked in 1 M KOHsolution for at least 24 hours for complete anion exchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻)before testing.

The obtained PSMIM-Cl and PE membrane was off-white with decentmechanical strength.

The PSMIM-Cl and PE blend membrane #11 preparation procedure was usedfor the preparation of PSMIM-Cl and PE blend membrane #12. The ratio ofPSMIM-Cl solution to PE solution is shown in Table 7 below.

The membranes were tested and determined to meet the classification as aHelper Membrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of theInvention section of the present application. The test results aresummarized in Table 7 below.

TABLE 7 Membrane # 11 12 VBC in copolymer (wt %) 46 59 PSMIM-Cl (ml) 4 4PE (ml) 0.5 0.5 Functional group in blend membrane (wt %) 40.89 52.74Cell potential (V) 3 3 Current (mA/cm²) 51.0 72 CO selectivity (%) 73.7192.15

Notice that these four polymer mixtures are Helper Membranes, and theyare all stronger than PSMMIM.

Many polymers related to PBI, PPO, Nylon and PE could also be added tothe membrane to improve its strength. PE is a polyolefin. Otherpolyolefins and chlorinated or fluorinated polyolefins could also beblended with PSMMIM to produce a helper catalyst. PBI contains cyclicamines in its repeat unit. Other polymers containing cyclic amines couldalso be blended with PSMMIM to produce a Helper Membrane. PPO containsphenylene groups. Other polymers containing phenylene or phenyl groupscould also be blended with PSMMIM to produce a Helper Membrane. Nyloncontains amine and carboxylate linkages. Other polymers containing amineor carboxylate linkages could also be blended with PSMMIM to produce aHelper Membrane.

Specific Example 7

The objective of this example is to identify a Helper Membrane that doesnot contain styrene. In particular it will be shown that a terpolymer ofmethyl methacrylate (MMA), butyl acrylate (BA), and the 1-methylimidazole adduct of VBC, which will be referred to asmethylimidazolium-poly(vinylbenzylchloride-co-methylmethacrylate-co-butylacrylate) chloride (PVMBMIM-Cl) is a HelperMembrane.

PVMBMIM-Cl solution was prepared by a two-step reaction process: (1)poly(VBC-co-MMA-co-BA) synthesis from the reaction of 4-vinylbenzylchloride (VBC), methyl methacrylate (MMA) and butylacrylate (BA) intoluene under nitrogen gas (S.J. Smith) protection with2,2′-Azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) as initiator; then (2)reacting poly(VBC-co-MMA-co-BA) with 1-methylimidazole at roomtemperature for more than 24 hours to obtained PVMBMIM-Cl polymersolution.

Synthesis of poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-methylmethacrylate-co-butylacrylate): monomers (Sigma-Aldrich) (MMA: 4.511 g,BA: 4.702 g, VBC: 4.701 g) were polymerized in toluene (Sigma-Aldrich)(25 ml) with AIBN (0.0811 g) as initiator. The reaction was kept at50-55° C. for 41.62 hours under nitrogen protection with vigorousstirring. Terpolymer was precipitated out in methanol (AvantorPerformance Materials Inc.) and washed with methanol for several times.The obtained polymer powder was dried in an oven at 80° C. for 2 hoursand then 120° C. for another 2 hours. 6.4319 g polymer powder wascollected (yield: 46.23%). VBC content in the copolymer was 33.79 wt %.

Synthesis of methylimidazolium-poly(VBC-co-MMA-co-BA) chloride(PVMBMIM-Cl): 1-methylimidazole (Sigma-Aldrich) (0.55 ml, 0.5616 g) wasadded to the solution of the poly(VBC-co-MMA-co-BA) (2.06 g) inanhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (15 ml). Themixture was stirred at room temperature for more than 26 hours.

Membrane preparation: 1) PVMBMIM-Cl polymer solution prepared above wascast onto a flat glass (8 cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (2) Themembrane was air dried at room temperature for overnight. (3) The glassplate with membranes was put in an oven (MTI Corporation); the membraneswere then dried at 80° C. for 2 hours and then 120° C. for another 2hours under the protection of nitrogen. (4) After the oven temperaturecooled down to room temperature, the membranes were taken out and soakedin a 1 M KOH (Fisher Scientific) bath. Membranes were peeled off fromthe substrates and soaked in 1 M KOH solution for at least 24 hours forcompletely anion exchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

The PVMBMIM-Cl membrane was transparent with very good mechanicalstrength. The membranes were tested according to the test set forth inthe Summary of the Invention section of the present application withresults set forth in Table 8 below.

TABLE 8 Membrane # 13 VBC in terpolymer (wt %) 33.79 Cell potential (V)2.8 Current (mA/cm²) 68 CO selectivity (%) 90.56

The membranes were tested and determined to meet the classification as aHelper Membrane according to the test set forth in the Summary of theInvention section of the present application. The membrane supported 55mA/cm² of CO₂ conversion current at an applied potential of 2.8 V. Theselectivity was about 90%. Therefore, PVMBMIM is a Helper Membrane.

Specific Example 8

The objective of this example is to demonstrate that hydrophilicmaterials can be added to the membrane to improve water retention. Inthis example, hygroscopic oxide materials were introduced during themembrane preparation to improve water uptake and water retention in themembrane. Hygroscopic oxide materials include silica (SiO₂), zirconia(ZrO₂), and titania (TiO₂). In this example, zirconia was tested.

Zirconium (IV) propoxide (70 wt. % in propanol, 333972, Sigma-Aldrich)was mixed with the polymer solution prepared as set forth in SpecificExample 1 for the synthetic route depicted in FIGS. 3 to 15 wt % in DMF.The mixture was sonicated in an ultrasonic bath for 30 minutes to obtaina homogeneous solution. The solution containing zirconia was cast toform a membrane on a glass slide following the procedure set forth inSpecific Example 1 for casting the PSMMIM solution. The membrane wasdried at 80° C. for 1 hour and 120° C. for 30 minutes in a vacuum oven.Then the membrane was detached from the glass slide in 1 M KOH solutionand allowed to exchange to the hydroxide form. The membrane was rinsedwith deionized water to remove free KOH and was sandwiched between an Agcathode and a RuO₂ anode following the procedure set forth in theSummary of the Invention section of the present application to classifyas a Helper Membrane. The whole assembly was mounted in a Fuel CellTechnologies 5 cm² fuel cell hardware assembly. The membrane showed 60mA/cm² at 2.8 V with 84% selectivity so the membrane is a HelperMembrane.

Specific Example 9

The objective of this example is to demonstrate that a deliquescentmaterial, ZnBr, can be added to the membrane to improve water retention.

The cathode was prepared as follows. First a silver nanoparticle ink wasprepared via the addition of 50 mg of silver nanoparticles (20-40 nm,45509, Alfa Aesar) to 0.8 mL of deionized water (18.2 Mohm, Millipore)and 0.4 mL of isopropanol (3032-16, Macron). The mixture was thensonicated for one minute. The resulting silver ink was air-brushed ontocarbon fiber paper (Toray Paper 120, 40% wet-proofing, Toray IndustriesInc., Tokyo, Japan) covering an area of 5 cm×5 cm. This square was thencut into four equally-sized squares of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm each.

The anode was prepared the same way in each cell, as follows. First aruthenium oxide nanoparticle ink was prepared via the addition of 50 mgof RuO₂ nanoparticles (11804, Alfa Aesar) to 0.8 mL of deionized water(18.2 Mohm, Millipore) and 0.4 mL of isopropanol (3032-16, Macron). Themixture was then sonicated for one minute. The resulting RuO₂ ink wasair-brushed onto carbon fiber paper (Toray Paper 120, 40% wet-proofing)covering an area of 5 cm×5 cm. This square was then cut into fourequally-sized squares of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm each.

For the cell with ZnBr added to the membrane surface, 25 mg of ZnBr(Sigma Aldrich, 02128) were spread across the surface of a PSMMIMmembrane prepared as set forth in Specific Example 5 for the synthesisof poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene). For the cell with ZnBrincorporated into the membrane solution, 7.5 mg of ZnBr were added to 3ml of membrane solution prior to casting. The PSMMIM membrane was thencast and prepared in the typical fashion as described previously.

For each cell, the cathode, PSMIM membrane, and anode were sandwichedtogether such that the metal catalysts of each electrode faced themembrane. The assembly was mounted in a Fuel Cell Technologies 5 cm²fuel cell hardware assembly with serpentine graphite flow fields.

Each cell was tested by holding the cell at 2.8 V for at least one hour.Air was permitted to flow over the anode flow field while humidified CO₂was passed through the cathode flow field at a flow rate of 15 sccm.

In the case of the membrane with a ZnBr coating, the initial current wasonly 22 mA/cm² but it was very stable. No membrane dry-out was detected.

The membrane that had been soaked in ZnBr initially showed 60 mA/cm²current, but fell to 22 mA/cm² after about 1 hour.

Still, both membranes are Helper Membranes.

Specific Example 10

The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate that Helper Membranesare useful for water electrolyzers.

A 50-300 micron thick PSMMIM membrane was synthesized as in SpecificExample 1. The membrane was sandwiched between the anode and the cathodewith the catalysts facing the membrane. A cathode is prepared asfollows: a cathode ink was made by mixing 30 mg of IrO₂ nanoparticles(A17849, Alfa Aesar) with 0.2 ml deionized water (18.2 Mohm, Millipore)and 0.4 ml isopropanol (3032-16, Macron). The mixture was then sonicatedfor 1 minute. The cathode ink was sprayed onto a gas diffusion layer(Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion Power) covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm. Ananode was prepared as follows: a catalyst ink was made by mixing 15 mgof Pt black (43838, Alfa Aesar) with 0.2 ml deionized water (18.2 MohmMillipore), 0.2 ml isopropanol (3032-16, Macron). The anode catalyst inkwas hand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, IonPower) covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm. The whole assembly was mountedin Fuel Cell Technologies 5 cm² fuel cell hardware assembly withserpentine flow fields. A 1 M KOH solution of water is fed to bothcathode and anode chambers at a flow rate of 5 sccm. The cell was run atroom temperature either potential dynamically or at constant current.For instance, the current output was 300 and 400 mA/cm² at a cellpotential of 1.8 V and 1.9 V, respectively.

The use of an anion exchange membrane also enables the use ofnon-precious metal as catalysts. Nickel foam (EQ-bcnf-16m, MTI) was usedas both cathode and anode. A current density of 80 mA/cm² was achievedat a cell potential of 2 V and room temperature.

Specific Example 11

This example shows that Helper Membranes are also useful for alkalinemembrane fuel cell power generator.

Pt black (43838, Alfa Aesar) was used as the catalysts for both cathodeand anode. The catalysts ink was made by mixing 15 mg of Pt black with0.4 ml of anion exchange polymer solution (1 wt % in DMF) and washand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion Power)covering an area of 2.5 cm×2.5 cm. The electrodes were dried undervacuum at 120° C. for 30 minutes. A 50-300 micrometer thick membraneprepared as set forth in Specific Example 1 for the preparation of thefirst inhibitor-free styrene was sandwiched between cathode and anode,with the respective catalysts facing the membrane. The entire assemblywas mounted in Fuel Cell Technologies 5 cm² fuel cell hardware assemblywith serpentine flow fields. H₂ and O₂ were humidified via 350 cc waterbottles at room temperature, and were fed to anode and cathode chambersat 20 ccm, respectively. The cell was run at room temperature andatmosphere pressure. The cell was conditioned by repeatedly applying acell potential of 0.3 V and 0.6 V for 1 hour until the cell performancewas stable. Currents of 60 mA and 150 mA were achieved at 0.6 V and 0.2V, respectively. A power of 36 mW was attained at ambient conditions.

Specific Example 12

The objective of this example is to provide a Helper Membrane made frommethylimidazolium-poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) bromide(PPOMIM-Br) polymer solution.

PPOMIM-Br solution was prepared by a two-step reaction process: (1)Methyl-brominated poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) (PPO-Br)synthesis from the reaction of poly (2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide)(PPO) with N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) in chlorobenzene under argon gas(S.J. Smith) protection with 2,2′-Azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN)as initiator. (2) PPO-Br was reacted with 1-methylimidazole at roomtemperature to 60° C. for more than 15 hours to obtained PPOMIM-Brpolymer solution.

Synthesis of methyl-brominated poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide)(PPO-Br). PPO-Br #14 with low bromination ratio was synthesizedaccording to the literature (Reactive & Functional Polymers 70 (2010)944-950), a detail procedure can be summarized as follows: NBS (2.84 g,15.96 mmol) (Sigma-Aldrich) and AIBN (0.12 g, 0.73 mmol) were added to asolution of PPO (2.839, 24.08 mmol) (Sigma-Aldrich) in chlorobenzene(200 ml). The mixture was stirred at 125-135° C. for 4-6 hours undernitrogen protection, the reaction mixture was then added to excessmethanol to precipitate the product. After filtration and washing withmethanol for several times, the polymer was dried at room temperatureunder vacuum for more than 2 days. 2.45 g of light yellow powder wascollected (yield: 51.14%). The bromination ratio of PPO-Br wascalculated from the integration of the NMR methyl peak and methylenepeak (18.3%):

${X_{{CH}_{2}{Br}}(\%)} = {\frac{3 \times I_{{CH}_{2}}}{{2 \times I_{{CH}_{3}}} + {3 \times I_{{CH}_{2}}}} \times 100\%}$

PPO-Br membrane #14a with high bromination ratio was synthesizedaccording to the literature (Journal of Membrane Science 425-426 (2013)131-140), a detail procedure can be summarized as follows: NBS (6.27 g,35.2 mmol) (Sigma-Aldrich) and AIBN (0.4 g, 2.4 mmol) were added to asolution of PPO (2.89, 24.1 mmol) (Sigma-Aldrich) in chlorobenzene (160ml). The mixture was stirred at 125-135° C. for 18 hours under nitrogenprotection, the reaction mixture was then added to excess Methanol toprecipitate the product. After filtration and washing with methanol forseveral times, the polymer was dried at room temperature under vacuumfor more than 2 days. 3.04 g of light yellow powder was collected(yield: 63.4%). Bromination ratio: 56.6%

Synthesis of methylimidazolium-poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide)bromide (PPOMIM-Br membrane #14): 1-methylimiazole (Sigma-Aldrich) (0.37ml, 4.6 mmol) was added to the solution of the PPO-Br membrane #14 (1.0g) in 15 ml tetrahydrofuran (THF) (Sigma-Aldrich) and 5 ml methanol(Avantor Performance Materials Inc.). The mixture was refluxed at 55-65°C. for 18 hours.

Synthesis of methylimidazolium-poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide)bromide (PPOMIM-Br membrane #14a): 1-methylimiazole (Sigma-Aldrich)(0.67 ml, 8.5 mmol) was added to the solution of the PPO-Br membrane#14a (1.5 g) in 24 ml tetrahydrofuran (THF) and 8 ml methanol. Themixture was stirred at room temperature to 65° C. for 18 hours. Brownpolymer separated from the solution at the end of the reaction.

Membrane preparation: (1) Cast PPOMIM-Br #14 polymer solution preparedabove onto a flat glass (8 cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (2) Themembrane was air dried at room temperature for overnight for solventevaporation. (3) The membrane was soaked in a 1 M KOH (FisherScientific) bath for at least 24 hours for complete anion exchange(Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

PPOMIM-Br membrane #14a polymer solution was taken after 4 hoursreaction of PPO-Br with 1-methylimidazole at room temperature formembrane casting. PPOMIM-Br membrane #14a membrane was very soft andmechanical strength was very weak. The text results are set forth inTable 9 below.

TABLE 9 Membrane # 14 Bromination ratio (%) 18.3 Cell potential (V) 3.0Current (mA/cm²) 14 CO selectivity (%) 31.5

Specific Example 13

The objective of this example is to determine whether amethylimidazolium-poly(4-vinylbenzylchloride) membrane with no styreneis also a Helper Membrane.

PVMIM-Cl solution was prepared from commercial availablepoly(vinylbenzyl chloride) (PVBC) and 1-methylimidazole as shown in thestructural diagram below.

Synthesis of methylimidazolium-PVBC (PVMIM-Cl): 1-methylimiazole(Sigma-Aldrich) (2.33 ml, 29.23 mmol) was added to the solution of thePVBC (Sigma-Aldrich) (4.9466 g) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF)(Sigma-Aldrich) (40 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for46.9 hours. PVMIM-Cl polymer solution was not stable and not suitablefor long time storage.

Membranes preparation: (1) Cast PVMIM-Cl polymer solution prepared aboveonto a flat glass (8 cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (2) Put theglass plate with membranes in an oven (MTI Corporation); the membraneswere then dried at 80° C. for 4 hours and then 120° C. for another 2hours under the protection of nitrogen. (3) After the oven temperaturecooled down to room temperature, the membranes were taken out and soakedin a 1 M KOH (Fisher Scientific) bath. Membranes were peeled off fromthe substrates and soaked in 1 M KOH solution for at least 24 hours forcomplete anion exchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

In this case, when the membrane was exposed to water, it swelled to forma gel-like structure which was too soft to test. So it is uncertain asto whether the membrane is a Helper Membrane. This example indicatesthat methylimidazolium-poly(4-vinylbenzylchloride membrane with nostyrene, PBI or other copolymers is not a suitable membrane. Instead, atleast 10% of one of another polymer such as styrene or PBI is needed tomake a suitable membrane.

Specific Example 14

The objective of this example is to provide a Helper Membrane made fromblends of poly(vinylbenzyl chloride) (PVBC) and polybenzimidazole (PBI).

Two methods were tired for the preparation of Helper Membrane from PVBCand PBI. (1) A PBI and PVBC crosslinked membrane was prepared, which wasthen reacted with 1-methylimidazole. (2) PBI and PVBC were crosslinkedin the solution and 1-methylimidazole was added during the crosslinkingprocess.

Membrane preparation procedure from the first method: (1) Prepared 2 wt% (in DMAc) PBI and 2 wt % PVBC (in DMAc) solution polymer solution. (2)Added 3.2 ml PBI (2 wt %) solution into 2 wt % PVBC solution (2 ml). (3)The mixtures were kept at room temperature and ultrasonicated for 1hour. (4) The resulting polymer solution was cast on a glass plate (8cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (5) The glass plate with membraneswas put in an oven (MTI Corporation); the membranes were then dried at70° C. overnight and then 120° C. for another 3 hours under vacuum. (6)After the oven temperature cooled down to room temperature, themembranes were taken out and soaked in DI water. (7) The membrane wasdried at 200° C. for 1 hour. (8) The PVBC/PBI membrane was soaked in1-methylimidazole solution for 2 days. (9) The membrane was rinsed withDI water and the membrane was then soaked in a 1 M KOH (FisherScientific) bath for at least 24 hours for complete anion exchange(Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

The membranes were tested according to the test protocol set forth inthe Summary of the Invention section of the present application withresults set forth in Table 10 below.

TABLE 10 Membrane # 15 16 PVBC (ml) 2 2 PBI (ml) 3.2 2 Functional groupin blend membrane (wt %) 38.46 50 Cell potential (V) 2.8 2.8 Current(mA/cm²) 10 33 CO selectivity (%) 14.96 53.81

Membrane #17 preparation procedure: (1) 16.83 mmol PVBC was dissolved in20 ml dimethylacetamide (DMAc). (2) 1.01 mmol PBI (in 15 ml DMAc)solution was added into the PVBC/DMAc solution. (3) A heater was turnedon to increase temperature gradually to 90° C. for crosslinking of PBIwith PVBC; part of polymer solution turned into gel after 2-3 hoursreaction. (4) The heater was turned off and to let the solution cool toroom temperature, then 15.1 mmol 1-methylimidazole was added to thepolymer solution and the reaction was kept at room temperature for 4-6hours. (5) The polymer solution was cast onto a flat glass plate (8cm×10 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette. (6) The glass plate with membraneswas put in an oven (MTI Corporation); the membranes were then dried at70° C. overnight and then 120° C. for another 3 hours under vacuum. (7)After the oven temperature cooled down to room temperature, themembranes were taken out and soaked in 1 M KOH bath for at least 24hours for complete anion exchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

The membranes were tested according to the test protocol set forth inthe Summary of the Invention section of the present application withresults set forth in Table 11 below.

TABLE 11 Membrane # 17 Functional group in blend membrane (wt %) 81.75Cell potential (V) 2.8 Current (mA/cm²) 43 CO selectivity (%) 93.22

This result shows that unlike the membrane that was 100%methylimidazolium-poly(vinylbenzylchloride), a membrane with 81.75%methylimidazolium-poly(vinylbenzylchloride) is still a Helper Membrane.Extrapolation of the data indicates that up to 90%methylimidazolium-poly(vinylbenzylchloride) can be present in themembrane, and still have suitable performance.

Specific Example 15

The objective of this example is to illustrate a procedure to convertCO₂ to formic acid in an electrochemical device by using a tin cathodecatalyst and the PBI/PSMIM-Cl anion exchange membrane #6 in Table 4above.

The electrolysis was conducted in an electrolysis cell with an anode, acathode and an anion exchange membrane assembled in a modified 5 cm²fuel cell hardware assembly (Fuel Cell Technologies) with gas and liquidchannels and serpentine flow fields.

The anode in this example was prepared as follows. A RuO₂ ink solutionwas prepared by mixing 18 mg of RuO₂ (11804, Alfa Aesar) and 2 mg ofgraphene nanoplatelets (A-12, Graphene Laboratories, Calverton, N.Y.)with 0.4 ml deionized water (18.2 Mohm Millipore water), 0.4 mlisopropanol (3032-16, Macron) and 0.14 ml of 5% Nafion solution (1100EW,DuPont). The RuO₂ ink was sonicated for 1 min and then hand-painted ontoa gas diffusion layer (TGP-H-120 40% wet proofing Toray Paper, Fuel CellEarth, Woburn, Mass.) with an area of 3.0 cm×3.0 cm.

The cathode in this example was prepared as follows. A Sn ink solutionwas prepared by mixing 18 mg of Sn nanoparticles (60-80 nm) (SN-M-04-NP,American Elements, Los Angeles, Calif.) and 2 mg of graphene nanopowders(A-12, Graphene Laboratories) with 0.4 ml deionized water (18.2 MohmMillipore water), 0.4 ml isopropanol (3032-16, Macron) and 0.14 ml of 5%Nafion solution (1100EW, DuPont). The Sn ink solution was sonicated for1 min and then hand-painted onto a gas diffusion layer (TGP-H-120 40%wet proofing Toray Paper, Fuel Cell Earth) with an area of 3.0 cm×3.0cm.

The anion exchange membrane used for this test was PBI/PSMIM-Cl membrane#6, as described above in Table 4. Before use, the membrane was soakedin 1 M KOH solution for at least 12 hours.

The electrolyte solution was prepared with deionized water (18.2 MohmMillipore water).

In this example, 10 mL of catholyte was subjected to recirculation runfor 5 hours, while 20 mL anolyte was replaced with fresh anolytesolution after every 1 hour of electrolysis.

The formate produced was detected and analyzed as follows. The formateproduced was first subjected to derivitization at 60° C. for 1 hour inthe presence of 2% sulfuric acid solution in ethanol. The product wasthen analyzed by an Agilent Technologies 6890N GC/5973 MS equipped witha Phenomenex Zebron ZB-WAX-Plus capillary GC column (L=30 m×I.D.=0.25mm×df=0.25 μm).

Electrolysis conditions and results are summarized in Table 12 below:

TABLE 12 Anolyte solution 1M KOH Catholyte solution 0.45M KHCO₃ + 0.5MKCl Anolyte flow rate 8 mL/min Catholyte flow rate 8 mL/min CO₂ gas flowrate 10 sccm Applied cell potential −3.5 V Current in 5 cm² cell 60mA/cm² Final formic acid concentration 3.97% in catholyte after 5 hoursFinal formic acid concentration 0.28% in anolyte after 5 hours

Specific Example 16

The objective of this example is to show that a membrane made from(2-hydroxyethyl)imidazolium-poly(4-vinylbenzylchloride-co-styrene)chloride (PSIMOH-Cl) polymer solution is a helper membrane.

PSIMOH-Cl solution (in anhydrous dimethylformamide) was prepared by atwo-step reaction process as shown in the following figure. 1)poly(4-VBC-co-St) synthesis from the reaction of styrene (St) with4-vinylbenzyl chloride (4-VBC) in chlorobenzene under nitrogen gas (S.J.Smith, Urbana, Ill.) protection with 2,2′-Azobis(2-methylpropionitrile)(AIBN) as initiator; 2) poly(4-VBC-co-St) reacts with1-(2-hydroxyethyl)imidazole at 50° C. for more than 20 hours to obtainedPSMIMOH-Cl polymer solution.

Synthesis of poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene): A solution ofinhibitor free styrene (Sigma-Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) (19.53 g, 0.19mol) and 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (Sigma-Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) (16.16g, 0.11 mol) in chlorobenzene (Sigma-Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) (45 ml)was heated at 60-68° C. in an oil bath for 17.83 h under nitrogen gaswith AIBN (Sigma-Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) (0.36 g, 1.02 wt % based onthe total monomer weight) as initiator. The copolymer was precipitatedin CH₃OH/THF and dried under vacuum. VBC content in the copolymer was45.28 wt %.

Synthesis of (2-hydroxyethyl)imidazolium-poly(4-VBC-co-St) chloride[PSIMOH-Cl]: 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)imidazole (Sigma-Aldrich, Milwaukee,Wis.) (0.7667 g, 6.84 mmol) was added to the solution of thepoly(4-VBC-co-St) (1.9657 g) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF)(Sigma-Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) (15 mL). The mixture was stirred atroom temperature for 0.5-1 hour, and then heated at 50-54° C. for 22.25hours.

Membrane preparation: (1) The PSIMOH-Cl polymer solution prepared abovewas cast onto a flat glass (13.5 cm×13.5 cm) with a 0.1 to 1 ml pipette.(2) The glass plate with membranes was put in an oven (MTI Corporation,Richmond, Calif.), the membranes were then dried at 80° C. for 7 hoursand then 120° C. for another 2 hours under the protection of nitrogen.(3) After oven temperature cooled down to room temperature, themembranes were taken out and soaked in a 1 M KOH (Fisher Scientific,Fair Lawn, N.J.) bath. Membranes were peeled off from the substrates andsoaked in 1 M KOH solution for at least 24 hours for complete anionexchange (Cl⁻→OH⁻) before testing.

The resultant membrane 18 was tested and determined to meet theclassification as a Helper Membrane according to the test set forth inthe Summary of the Invention section of the present application. Thetesting results are listed in Table 13 below.

Membrane # 18 Functional group in blend membrane (wt %) 45.3 Cellpotential (V) 3.0 Current (mA/cm²) 118 CO selectivity (%) 96.8

This result satisfies the criterion for a Helper Membrane.

While particular elements, embodiments and applications of the presentinvention have been shown and described, it will be understood that theinvention is not limited thereto since modifications can be made bythose skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the presentdisclosure, particularly in light of the foregoing teachings.

The examples given above are merely illustrative and are not meant to bean exhaustive list of all possible embodiments, applications ormodifications of the present electrochemical device. Thus, variousmodifications and variations of the described methods and systems of theinvention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departingfrom the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention hasbeen described in connection with specific embodiments, it should beunderstood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited tosuch specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of thedescribed modes for carrying out the invention which are obvious tothose skilled in the chemical arts or in the relevant fields areintended to be within the scope of the appended claims.

1. An electrochemical device for converting CO₂ to a reaction product,the device comprising: (a) an anode comprising a quantity of anodecatalyst, said anode having an anode reactant introduced thereto via atleast one anode reactant flow channel; (b) a cathode comprising aquantity of cathode catalyst, said cathode having a cathode reactantintroduced thereto via at least one cathode reactant flow channel; (c) apolymer electrolyte membrane interposed between said anode and saidcathode; wherein said cathode is encased in a cathode chamber and atleast a portion of the cathode catalyst is directly exposed to gaseousCO₂ during electrolysis, and wherein the device satisfies a testcomprising: (1) with said anode open to atmospheric air, introducing astream of CO₂ humidified at 50° C. into the cathode chamber while thedevice is at room temperature and atmospheric pressure; (2) applying acell potential of 3.0 V via an electrical connection between said anodeand said cathode with the device at room temperature; (3) measuring thecurrent across the cell and the concentration of CO and H₂ at the exitof said cathode chamber; (4) calculating the CO selectivity as follows:${{Selectivity} = \frac{\left( {{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} \right)}{\left( {{{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} + {H_{2}\mspace{11mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}}} \right)}};$(5) performing steps (1)-(4) with room temperature water being directedto said anode; and (6) determining that the device has satisfied thetest if the average current density at the membrane is at least 20mA/cm², where the cm² is measured as the area of the cathode gasdiffusion layer on which the catalyst is disposed, and CO selectivity isat least 50% at a cell potential of 3.0 V in at least one of step (4)and step (5).
 2. The electrochemical device in claim 1, wherein at least50% by mass of the cathode catalyst is directly exposed to gaseous CO₂during electrolysis.
 3. The electrochemical device of claim 2, whereinthe gaseous CO₂ is directed within 2 mm of the catalyst or the gasdiffusion layer on which the catalyst is disposed.
 4. Theelectrochemical device in claim 2, wherein at least 90% by mass of thecathode catalyst is directly exposed to gaseous CO₂ during electrolysis.5. The electrochemical device of claim 4, wherein the gaseous CO₂ isdirected within 2 mm of the catalyst or the gas diffusion layer on whichthe catalyst is disposed.
 6. The electrochemical device in claim 4,wherein the polymer electrolyte membrane is an anionic exchangemembrane.
 7. The electrochemical device in claim 6, wherein at least aportion of said polymer electrolyte membrane is a Helper Membraneidentifiable by applying a test comprising: (1) preparing a cathodecomprising 6 mg/cm² of silver nanoparticles on a carbon fiber paper gasdiffusion layer; (2) preparing an anode comprising 3 mg/cm² of RuO₂ on acarbon fiber paper gas diffusion paper; (3) preparing a polymerelectrolyte membrane test material; (4) interposing the membrane testmaterial between the anode and the cathode, the side of cathode havingthe silver nanoparticles disposed thereon facing one side of themembrane and the side of the anode having RuO₂ disposed thereon facingthe other side of the membrane, thereby forming a membrane electrodeassembly; (5) mounting the membrane electrode assembly in a fuel cellhardware assembly; (6) directing a stream of CO₂ humidified at 50° C.into the cathode reactant flow channels while the fuel cell hardwareassembly is at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, with the anodereactant flow channels left open to the atmosphere at room temperatureand pressure; (7) applying a cell potential of 3.0 V via an electricalconnection between the anode and the cathode; (8) measuring the currentacross the cell and the concentration of CO and H₂ at the exit of thecathode flow channel; (9) calculating the CO selectivity as follows:${{Selectivity} = \frac{\left( {{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} \right)}{\left( {{{CO}\mspace{14mu} {production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}} + {H_{2\;}{production}\mspace{14mu} {rate}}} \right)}};$and (10) identifying the membrane as a Helper Membrane if the averagecurrent density at the membrane is at least 20 mA/cm², measured as thearea of the cathode gas diffusion layer that is covered by catalyst, andCO selectivity is at least 50% at a cell potential of 3.0 V.
 8. Theelectrochemical device of claim 7, wherein the polymer electrolytemembrane is entirely a Helper Membrane.
 9. The electrochemical device ofclaim 1, wherein said polymer electrolyte membrane is a Helper Membranecomprising a polymer containing at least one of an imidazolium ligand, apyridinium ligand and a phosphonium ligand.
 10. The electrochemicaldevice of claim 1, wherein said anode catalyst is applied as a coatingfacing said membrane and the cathode catalyst is applied as a coatingfacing said membrane.
 11. The electrochemical device of claim 1, whereinsaid polymer electrolyte membrane is essentially immiscible in water.12. The electrochemical device of claim 1, wherein the reaction productis selected from the group consisting of CO, HCO⁻, H₂CO, (HCO₂)⁻, H₂CO₂,CH₃OH, CH₄, C₂H₄, CH₃CH₂OH, CH₃COO⁻, CH₃COOH, C₂H₆, (COOH)₂, (COO⁻)₂,H₂C═CHCOOH, and CF₃COOH.
 13. The electrochemical device of claim 1,further comprising a Catalytically Active Element.
 14. Theelectrochemical device of claim 13, wherein said Catalytically ActiveElement is selected from the group consisting of Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, Sb, Bi,Zn and In.
 15. A polymer electrolyte membrane comprising a polymer inwhich at least one constituent monomer is (p-vinylbenzyl)-R, where R isselected from the group consisting of imidazoliums, pyridiniums andphosphoniums, and wherein said membrane comprises 15%-90% by weight ofpolymerized (p-vinylbenzyl)-R.
 16. The membrane of claim 15, whereinsaid membrane comprises polystyrene.
 17. The membrane of claim 15,wherein said membrane has a thickness of 25-1000 micrometers.
 18. Themembrane of claim 17, further comprising a copolymer of at least one ofmethyl methacrylate and butylacrylate.
 19. The membrane of claim 17,further comprising at least one of a polyolefin, a chlorinatedpolyolefin, a fluorinated polyolefin, and a polymer comprising at leastone of cyclic amines, phenyls, nitrogen and carboxylate (—COO—) groupsin its repeating unit.
 20. The membrane of claim 15, wherein R isselected from at least one of: (a) imidazoliums of the formula:

where R₁-R₅ are each independently selected from the group consisting ofhydrogen, halides, linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls,heteroalkyls, aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, andpolymers thereof; (b) pyridiniums of the formula:

where R₆-R₁₁ are each independently selected from the group consistingof hydrogen, halides, linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls,heteroalkyls, aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, andpolymers thereof; and (c) phosphoniums of the formula:P⁺(R₁₂R₁₃R₁₄R₁₅) where R₁₂-R₁₅ are each independently selected from thegroup consisting of hydrogen, halides, linear alkyls, branched alkyls,cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls,heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof.
 21. (canceled)